Romans 9 in Context

- Romans 9 in Context -

Romans 9 is one of the most frequently cited chapters in support of Calvinistic theology, particularly the doctrines of unconditional election and predestination. But when read in context, alongside Romans 8-11, it becomes clear that Paul is not laying out a deterministic framework for individual salvation. Instead, he is responding to a real and urgent concern: Why have so many Israelites rejected the Messiah? And if they have, what does that mean for God’s promises? This chapter is not about arbitrary selection but about God’s faithfulness, Israel’s misunderstanding of righteousness, and how God’s covenant purposes are fulfilled through faith in Christ.

Romans 8 Summary

Paul’s argument in Romans 9 does not arise in isolation. It flows directly from the truths he established in Romans 8. There, he draws a sharp contrast between those who live according to the flesh and those who live according to the Spirit. The “law of the Spirit of life” has set believers free from the “law of sin and death” (Rom. 8:2). This distinction is critical, because Paul defines the true children of God not by physical descent but by the presence of the Spirit: “If anyone does not have the Spirit of Christ, he does not belong to Him” (8:9). Those led by the Spirit of God are sons of God (8:14). Believers have received not a spirit of slavery leading to fear, but the Spirit of adoption by which they cry out, “Abba! Father!” (8:15). Although Romans 9:4 states that to Israel belonged the adoption, Romans 8 clarifies that adoption now comes by the Spirit to those who are in Christ. The Spirit testifies that we are children of God (8:16), and if children, then heirs: heirs of God and co-heirs with Christ (8:17). This reinforces Paul’s point in Romans 9 that not all who are descended from Israel belong to Israel, and that inheritance comes not through the flesh, but through the Spirit, by faith. Believers, the “children of God” (8:21), eagerly await “our adoption as sons, the redemption of our body” (8:23). In this way, the identity of God's people, addressed in Romans 9, has already been framed in terms of faith, the Spirit, and adoption, not bloodline or works of the law.

This understanding is reinforced in Romans 8:28-30, a passage often used to support Calvinistic ideas of predestined salvation. But in context, Paul is not describing how God arbitrarily selected certain individuals before the foundation of the world for salvation while excluding others. It is that God’s eternal purpose has always been to redeem a faithful people, conform them to Christ, and glorify them with Him. This purpose applies to all who respond in faith to God’s gracious invitation.

“Those whom He foreknew” are the people God had a covenant relationship with, the faithful remnant (believing Jews), preserved by grace. This remnant now includes all who are in Christ by faith. What God predestined was not who would be in the group, but what He would do for those who are: to conform them to the image of His Son and raise them in glory.

This flow from Romans 8 into 9 shows that Paul is still talking about who the true children of God are. Romans 9:6’s statement, “not all who are descended from Israel belong to Israel,” isn’t a new idea. It’s the culmination of the Spirit-versus-flesh theme already established. The faithful remnant, those who love God and walk according to the Spirit, are the true heirs of the promise, not those who rely on lineage or law. God’s election is not arbitrary or secret, but grounded in His redemptive purpose to form a people defined by faith, shaped into the image of His Son, and adopted into His family by the Spirit.

• Note: For a more in depth look at Romans 8:28-30 please check out my article titled, “Who Did God Foreknow? - A Non-Calvinist Look at Romans 8:28-30.”

The Audience of Romans 9

Before walking through the arguments in Romans 9, it’s important to establish who Paul is primarily addressing. While the epistle to the Romans is written to a mixed congregation of Jewish and Gentile believers (e.g., Romans 1:7), different sections of the letter reveal shifts in emphasis, some directed primarily to Jewish believers (e.g., Romans 2:17), others to Gentile believers (e.g., Romans 11:13), and others to the entire church collectively. Romans 9-11 in particular centers on Israel’s role in God’s redemptive plan, and the tone and content of Romans 9 make it clear that Paul is chiefly addressing believing Jews (the faithful remnant in Romans 8), especially those struggling to understand Israel’s national rejection of the Messiah and whether God’s promises have failed as a result. Several textual indicators point to this conclusion:

1. Paul’s Deep Grief for Ethnic Israel (vv. 1-3): Paul begins with a personal lament, expressing "great sorrow and unceasing grief" for his "kinsmen according to the flesh," making clear his burden for the Jewish people who have not accepted Christ. This heartfelt expression assumes a sympathetic Jewish audience who would feel this same burden.
   
   
2. Israel’s Unique Covenantal Privileges (vv. 4-5): Paul highlights the distinctive blessings given to Israel: "the adoption as sons, the glory, the covenants, the giving of the Law, the temple service, and the promises." These are deeply rooted in Jewish history and theology and would resonate most with Jewish believers seeking to make sense of why many within Israel have missed the Messiah.
   
   
3. A Concern About God’s Faithfulness (v. 6): Paul addresses a central concern: “But it is not as though the word of God has failed.” This statement frames the entire discussion. The question of whether God has failed to keep His promises to Israel is a distinctly Jewish concern. Paul answers by clarifying that not all who are physically descended from Israel are part of the faithful people of God.
   
   
4. Clarification of True Descendants (vv. 7-9): Paul explains that not all physical descendants of Abraham are counted as true children of God, but rather “through Isaac your descendants will be named.” This theme of spiritual rather than merely physical descent would directly address Jewish confusion over how God’s promises are now applied.
   
   
5. Reference to “Our Father Isaac” (v. 10): Paul refers to Isaac as “our father” when recounting the story of Rebekah conceiving Jacob and Esau. This language reflects a shared identity with his audience. While Gentile believers could be called children of Abraham by faith, the phrase “our father Isaac” suggests Paul is still speaking in terms that would resonate most naturally with a Jewish audience.
   
   
6. Use of Jewish Patriarchs and Election History (vv. 10-13): Paul continues with the example of Jacob and Esau, quoting Genesis and Malachi to highlight God’s purpose in choosing Jacob. These examples are rooted in Jewish ancestral identity and covenantal expectation.
   
   
7. Anticipation of Jewish Objections (v. 14-19): Paul raises rhetorical questions that reflect how a Jewish listener might object to what he’s saying. These are not objections from a neutral outsider, but from someone familiar with the Jewish understanding of God's justice and covenant. Paul’s answers draw from Israel’s own history, particularly from Exodus, to demonstrate that God has always acted according to His mercy and long-term redemptive plan. This kind of anticipatory rebuttal reflects how Paul often engages with Jewish reasoning throughout Romans (cf. Romans 2-3), addressing concerns that God's ways might seem unfair based on covenant expectations.
   
   
8. Quotations from the Law and Prophets (vv. 15-29): Paul draws heavily from Jewish Scripture: Exodus, Hosea, Isaiah, and others. He references God’s words to Moses and Pharaoh (Exodus 33:19; 9:16), the remnant of Israel (Isaiah 10:22-23), and Gentile inclusion (Hosea 2:23; 1:10). His argument assumes familiarity with Israel’s Scriptures and covenant history.
   
   
9. Use of Jewish Scriptural Imagery: The Potter and the Clay (vv. 20-21): Paul appeals to the imagery of the potter and clay found in Isaiah and Jeremiah, familiar to any Jewish reader. In those prophetic contexts, the potter-clay metaphor was used to describe God’s dealings with nations, especially Israel, not individual salvation. Paul is using this imagery to show that God has the right to shape His covenant people for different roles in redemptive history.
   
   
10. Inclusion of Gentiles as a Shocking Expansion (v. 24): Paul says that God has called people “not from Jews only, but also from Gentiles.” The phrase “not from Jews only” reveals that Jews were the assumed starting point in Paul’s argument. This would be especially significant to Jewish believers processing how Gentiles were being included in blessings once thought to be exclusively theirs.
    
    
11. The Remnant and Gentile Inclusion Foretold in the Prophets (vv. 25-29): Paul quotes from Hosea and Isaiah, demonstrating that both the inclusion of Gentiles and the narrowing of Israel to a remnant were foretold in the Jewish Scriptures. These citations would serve to comfort Jewish believers with the idea that God’s plan was unfolding just as He said it would.
    
    
12. Conclusion About Israel’s Stumbling (vv. 30-33): Paul wraps up the chapter by stating that Gentiles, who did not pursue righteousness, attained it by faith, whereas Israel, pursuing a law of righteousness, did not. This contrast between Jewish failure and Gentile inclusion continues the underlying theme; Paul is helping Jewish believers understand why many of their fellow Israelites are not part of the redeemed community and how that fits within God's redemptive plan.
    
    

Taken together, these features show that Paul’s primary aim in Romans 9 is to address the confusion, concerns, and theological tensions that Jewish believers would naturally have regarding God’s promises to Israel and the apparent exclusion of many of their fellow Jews from the Messiah’s blessings. Recognizing this helps frame the rest of Paul's argument properly, not as a general treatise on individual salvation, but as an explanation of how God's covenant purposes are being fulfilled through faith in Christ rather than ethnic lineage or works of the Law.

Part 1 - Paul’s Anguish Over Israel (Romans 9:1-5)

            Romans 9:1-5 - “I am telling the truth in Christ, I am not lying, my conscience testifies with me in the Holy Spirit, that I have great sorrow and unceasing grief in my heart. For I could wish that I myself were accursed, separated from Christ for the sake of my countrymen, my kinsmen according to the flesh, who are Israelites, to whom belongs the adoption as sons, the glory, the covenants, the giving of the Law, the temple service, and the promises, whose are the fathers, and from whom is the Christ according to the flesh, who is God over all, blessed forever. Amen.”

Paul begins this section not with theological definitions but with heartfelt lament. His “unceasing grief” over Israel’s rejection of Christ sets the tone for what follows. This is not a detached theological discourse, it’s a personal, passionate plea born from anguish over his own people. Paul’s sorrow isn’t abstract; it’s rooted in the painful reality that many of his kinsmen, to whom God gave so much, have not received the Messiah.

This introduction is especially significant when we consider that Paul is likely addressing tensions felt by Jewish believers. As Gentiles pour into the faith and the remnant of believing Jews seems small, questions would naturally arise: Has God’s word failed? What about the promises to Israel? Paul begins here to prepare his readers to wrestle with those concerns.

He lists the incredible privileges that belonged to Israel: the adoption as sons, the visible manifestations of God’s glory, the covenants (Abrahamic, Mosaic, and Davidic), the giving of the Law, the temple service, the promises, and the patriarchs. And most significantly, the Messiah, Jesus, came through their lineage. These blessings were not imaginary; they were concrete, historical realities entrusted to Israel as a nation.

Yet in spite of these advantages, many in Israel failed to recognize and receive the One who fulfilled all of these promises. This tragic irony lies at the heart of Paul’s grief, and it forms the very tension this chapter seeks to resolve. The burden Paul carries is not merely personal, it is theological and covenantal. And as the following verses unfold, Paul will defend the faithfulness of God in light of Israel’s present condition, showing that God's promises have not failed, even if many of his fellow Israelites remain outside the promise.

Part 2 - God’s Word Hasn’t Failed (Romans 9:6-13)

            Romans 9:6-13 - “But it is not as though the word of God has failed. For they are not all Israel who are descended from Israel; nor are they all children because they are Abraham’s descendants, but: “through Isaac your descendants will be named.” That is, it is not the children of the flesh who are children of God, but the children of the promise are regarded as descendants. For this is the word of promise: “At this time I will come, and Sarah shall have a son.” And not only this, but there was Rebekah also, when she had conceived twins by one man, our father Isaac; for though the twins were not yet born and had not done anything good or bad, so that God’s purpose according to His choice would stand, not because of works but because of Him who calls, it was said to her, “The older will serve the younger.” Just as it is written, “Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated.””

Verse 6:

After lamenting Israel’s rejection of Christ in Romans 9:1-5, Paul turns to address the natural question: If Israel was God’s chosen people, has God’s word failed? He answers decisively in verse 6:

            “But it is not as though the word of God has failed. For they are not all Israel who are descended from Israel.”

This introduces a crucial distinction between ethnic Israel and true covenant Israel, between those who are physically descended from Abraham and those who are spiritually united with him through faith. Paul had already established this idea in Romans 2:28-29, where he wrote that a true Jew is one inwardly, and true circumcision is a matter of the heart, by the Spirit. The same distinction appears in Philippians 3:2-3, where Paul warns:

            “Beware of the dogs, beware of the evil workers, beware of the false circumcision; for we are the true circumcision, who worship in the Spirit of God and glory in Christ Jesus and put no confidence in the flesh.”

Here again, Paul contrasts two groups: those of the false circumcision (unbelieving Jews who rely on physical lineage, law-keeping, or religious identity markers) and the true circumcision, those who are united to Christ by faith and live by the Spirit.

Paul’s clarification in Romans 9 also echoes the structure of Romans 3. Both chapters begin by affirming the benefits of the Jews (Rom. 3:1-2; 9:4-5), yet both confront the sobering reality that many Jews do not believe. Still, that unbelief does not nullify God’s faithfulness. As Paul writes in Romans 3:3:

            “What then? If some did not believe, their unbelief will not nullify the faithfulness of God, will it? May it never be!”

In the same way, Romans 9 argues that God’s promises have not failed because those promises were never intended to apply to all ethnic Israelites, but only to those who are “children of the promise.”

To prove that this distinction is rooted in Israel’s own story, Paul uses the example of Isaac and Ishmael in (vv. 7-9). showing that God's promise has never rested merely on biological descent.

Verses 7-9:

            Romans 9:7-9 - “nor are they all children because they are Abraham’s descendants, but: “through Isaac your descendants will be named.” That is, it is not the children of the flesh who are children of God, but the children of the promise are regarded as descendants. For this is the word of promise: “At this time I will come, and Sarah shall have a son.””

Paul draws from Genesis 21:12 and Genesis 18:10, 14 to show that God’s promise to Abraham was specifically tied to Isaac. Though both Isaac and Ishmael were Abraham’s sons, only Isaac, the child born through God’s promise, was chosen to carry the covenant forward rather than Ishmael, the firstborn, who was born “according to the flesh.” This distinction reveals that physical descent from Abraham does not make one a child of God. Rather, it is “the children of the promise” who are counted as true descendants.

The statement “through Isaac your descendants will be named” finds its ultimate fulfillment in Christ, the true seed of Abraham who came through Isaac’s line (Gal. 3:16). And because believers are united to Christ by faith, they too are named as descendants and heirs of the promise. As Paul writes:

            “For you are all sons of God through faith in Christ Jesus.”

            “And if you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham’s descendants, heirs according to promise” (Galatians 3:26, 29).

In Galatians 4:28, Paul says,

            “Now you, brothers and sisters, like Isaac, are children of promise.”

And in Galatians 3:7,

            “Therefore, recognize that it is those who are of faith who are sons of Abraham.”

This means that those in Christ are the true covenant people. They are the ones in whom the naming of descendants through Isaac reaches its intended goal. Christ is the promised offspring, and those who are in Him are reckoned as Abraham’s family, not on the basis of ethnicity or flesh, but on the basis of faith.

Paul also reinforces this typological contrast in Galatians 4:22-23:

            “Abraham had two sons, one by the bondwoman and one by the free woman. But the son by the bondwoman was born according to the flesh, and the son by the free woman through the promise.”

And he continues in Galatians 4:29-31:

            “But as at that time he who was born according to the flesh persecuted him who was born according to the Spirit, so it is now also. But what does the Scripture say? ‘Cast out the bondwoman and her son, for the son of the bondwoman shall not be an heir with the son of the free woman.’ So then, brethren, we are not children of a bondwoman, but of the free woman.”

This typological contrast reinforces Paul’s central point in Romans 9: God’s covenant people are not defined by physical descent or human effort, but by promise and faith. Ishmael and Isaac serve as representatives of two groups: those who seek inclusion through the flesh (like unbelieving Israel) and those who receive the promise by faith (like the believing remnant and Gentiles). Just as Isaac, not Ishmael, carried the promise, so now, only those who are united to Christ through faith are considered children of God and true heirs. The naming of descendants “through Isaac” ultimately culminates in Jesus, the promised offspring, and extends to all who belong to Him. In this way, Paul is not suggesting that God changed His plan, but affirming that it has always been through a line of promise, fulfilled in Christ and extended to all who believe.

Verses 10:

Paul continues to explain why God's word has not failed (v. 6), reassuring especially his fellow Jewish believers who may be struggling to reconcile Israel’s history with the current rejection of Christ by many of their kinsmen. He shows that God's promises were never intended to apply to all of Abraham’s physical descendants. After illustrating this with the example of Isaac over Ishmael, Paul turns to the case of Rebekah’s twins, Jacob and Esau, who had the same father and mother, to remove any appeal to differing parentage. This example shows that even within the chosen line, God’s purposes are not governed by human expectations like birth order or personal merit. Rather, God is free to carry out His redemptive plan according to His will - bringing the Messiah through a chosen lineage and extending His promises to whomever He wills, namely, those in Christ through faith.

Verse 11:

Romans 9:11 highlights God’s choice to continue His redemptive plan through Jacob rather than Esau, “though the twins were not yet born and had not done anything good or bad,” to show that His purpose in election stands, not based on works but on His calling. The context reveals that Paul is not addressing individual election unto salvation or condemnation before birth, but God’s sovereign decision to establish the particular line through which His covenant promises would be fulfilled, ultimately bringing Christ, the true Seed, into the world. 

Just as God chose Abraham, Isaac, and then Jacob, not because of personal merit but according to His unfolding redemptive plan and vocational calling, so too God now has a purpose according to His choice to extend His promises to those who positively respond to the gospel call through faith in Christ. Paul’s use of Jacob and Esau serves as a typological example showing that God’s people are not defined by physical descent or human effort, but by those who are born of the Spirit through faith, so that the promise may be fulfilled in those who respond positively to His call.

Verse 12:

Verse 12 builds directly on verse 11, continuing Paul’s argument by recalling what was said to Rebekah: “The older will serve the younger.” This quotation from Genesis 25:23 originally referred to the nations that would descend from Jacob and Esau, Israel and Edom. In that context, God was not speaking merely about the two individuals, but about the historical roles their descendants would play. The statement reflects God’s sovereign decision to reverse the expected cultural norm, elevating the younger over the older to carry forward His redemptive plan. 

While this was fulfilled historically in events such as Edom’s subjugation to Israel (e.g., 2 Samuel 8:13-14), Paul now uses this example to reinforce that God's redemptive purposes is not based on human status, birth order, or lineage, but on His own calling. Just as God's choice of Jacob over Esau defied expectations, so now God's promise is extended not to those with physical or ancestral privilege, but to those who freely respond in faith to His call. The pattern continues: God’s redemptive plan advances not by human expectations.

Verse 13:

Verse 13 then begins with the phrase “Just as it is written,” signaling Paul’s direct connection between his previous argument and the Old Testament. He quotes Malachi 1:2-3, “Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated,” a statement written centuries after Jacob and Esau lived. This verse reflects God’s covenantal posture toward their descendant nations, Israel and Edom, rather than expressing personal animosity toward the individuals themselves. Importantly, in Hebrew idiomatic language, “love” and “hate” often signify covenantal choice or priority rather than emotional feelings. For example, Jesus uses similar language in Luke 14:26 (“hate your father and mother”), where “hate” expresses a reordering of loyalty rather than literal hatred.

Paul uses this quotation to emphasize that God’s election of Jacob was about His sovereign plan to bring the Messiah through a particular lineage, not about individual salvation or condemnation. Importantly, Esau, the father of Edom, was not cursed or eternally rejected. Scripture portrays him as materially blessed and even reconciled with Jacob (Genesis 33). This shows that “Esau I hated” is best understood as God’s covenantal preference rather than personal rejection or eternal condemnation.

This covenantal and idiomatic understanding of “love” and “hate” strengthens Paul’s argument that God’s promises have not failed. His covenantal promises are centered on faith, not on physical descent or works. God’s love for Jacob reflects His choice to work through Jacob’s line, a covenantal people culminating in Christ, the true Seed of Abraham. 

Now, Paul appears to be applying that principle to his present audience: the covenantal love once shown to Jacob is fulfilled and extended to all who belong to Christ by faith, Jew and Gentile alike. In this way, Jacob and Esau function typologically. Jacob represents the believing remnant, both Jews and Gentiles, who inherit the promise through faith. On the other hand, just as Esau willingly gave up his birthright and inheritance (Genesis 25:29-34), so too those among Israel, whom Paul is mourning (v. 1-5), are like Esau, born into the covenant community but forfeiting their spiritual inheritance through unbelief. Esau thus serves as a sobering picture of covenantal presumption and loss. This contrast emphasizes that faith is the means by which the covenant promises are received, not physical descent, religious status, or works. Though many of Paul’s kinsmen are physically descended from Jacob, their unbelief places them outside the covenant family (Romans 9:6). Yet God’s word has not failed; His promises are being fulfilled just as intended from the beginning, through the Messiah and all who belong to Him by faith.

Jesus Himself confirmed this shift in covenant inheritance when He said in Matthew 21:43, “The kingdom of God will be taken away from you and given to a nation producing its fruit.” This “nation” is the new covenant people of God, composed of all who respond in faith, both Jews and Gentiles. Peter describes this same community in 1 Peter 2:9-10, applying to them the very titles once given to Israel in Exodus 19:5-6: “But you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation...” In Romans 10 and 11, Paul makes clear that the faithful remnant of Israel together with believing Gentiles form one united people of God, the same olive tree, with branches broken off or grafted in depending on faith. This is not a replacement of Israel, but the clarification of who constitutes true Israel and belongs to God’s covenant family: those who are in Christ.

Even Revelation reflects this continuity of covenant identity. In Revelation 3:9, Jesus speaks to the faithful church, saying, “I will make those of the synagogue of Satan, who say they are Jews and are not, but lie—I will make them come and bow down at your feet, and make them know that I have loved you.” This echoes Isaiah 60:14, where oppressors of Zion will bow before her, acknowledging God's favor. Yet now the fulfillment is applied to the church, those in Christ, indicating that the vindication and blessings promised to Israel are realized in the faithful remnant united to the Messiah. Revelation 3:9 thus mirrors Paul’s logic in Romans 2:28-29 and 9:6: not all who are descended from Israel truly belong to Israel. True membership in God’s covenant family is not based on outward claims, but inward faith. Paul is thus taking a historical reality, the choice of Jacob over Esau, and applying it to a present spiritual truth: God's people are now identified not by ancestry or works, but by responding to the call of the gospel in faith. Just as “Jacob I loved” refers to the covenantal people through whom God would fulfill His redemptive purposes, so now “I have loved you” refers to the church, God’s people in Christ, composed of both believing Jews and Gentiles.

Therefore, Paul’s argument thus far affirms that God's word has not failed (v. 6), because the true children of God are not identified by ancestry or works, but by God’s covenantal calling and promise, fulfilled in Christ and extended to all who believe. Even within the messianic line itself, we see that many rejected God’s promises. Jacob’s descendants (Israel) and Esau’s descendants (Edom) both share Abrahamic heritage, yet their covenantal outcomes diverged. This illustrates that birth into the line of promise, while a privilege, never guaranteed participation in the promise itself. The same holds true in Paul’s day: not all who are ethnically Jewish inherit the promises unless they are in Christ through faith. With this foundation laid, Paul now anticipates the natural objection that many Jewish believers would raise, namely, whether God is unjust for extending His promises to those outside ethnic Israel while many of His covenant people have stumbled. He addresses this head-on in the next section (v. 14ff), showing that God’s freedom to carry out His redemptive plan has always been grounded in mercy, not merit or lineage.

Summary of Romans 9:6-13:

In Romans 9:6-13, Paul affirms that God's redemptive purposes have not failed, despite Israel’s widespread rejection of Christ. Drawing from Israel’s history, he demonstrates that God’s covenant promises have always been fulfilled through His sovereign calling and faith, not through physical descent or human merit. The examples of Isaac over Ishmael and Jacob over Esau illustrate that being part of God’s covenant people has never been about biology or works but about God’s unfolding purpose, culminating in Christ.

However, these examples do not teach individual predestination to eternal salvation or damnation, but rather illustrate how God’s redemptive plan has consistently progressed by His sovereign choice of a representative line. Isaac and Jacob were chosen to carry the covenant forward, not because of anything they had done, but because God was orchestrating His plan to bring the Messiah into the world and fulfill His promises through faith. God is free to carry out His redemptive plan according to His will, bringing the Messiah through a chosen lineage and extending His promises to whomever He wills, namely, those in Christ through faith.

The distinction between children of the flesh and children of the promise underscores Paul’s point: true Israel consists of those who respond to God in faith, not merely those descended physically from Abraham. Jacob thus becomes a representative of the faithful, those who inherit the promise by grace through faith, while Esau becomes a representative of those who, though born within the covenant community, forfeit their inheritance through unbelief. This pattern mirrors the present situation in Paul’s day.

This understanding is reinforced by the fact that Jacob’s name was changed to Israel, and the name “Israel” came to represent the covenant people of God. Throughout the Old Testament, Gentiles could join this covenant people and be counted as part of Israel. In the New Testament, Christ is revealed as the true Israel, the fulfillment of all God’s covenant purposes. Those united to Him, whether Jew or Gentile, are now rightly called Israel in the truest, covenantal sense. God’s sovereign right to define His people, now clearly revealed in Christ, does not nullify His promises to Israel. Rather, it clarifies them. The true people of God are not identified by ancestry or works, but by faith in Christ, the true Seed of Abraham (Galatians 3:16). This is not a change in God’s plan, but its fulfillment.

As Paul goes on to explain in Romans 11, the faithful remnant of Israel and believing Gentiles together form one people of God, the same olive tree, with branches broken off or grafted in based on faith. This demonstrates continuity, not replacement. And importantly, those broken-off branches, unbelieving Israelites, can be grafted in again if they do not continue in unbelief (Romans 11:23). Paul holds out hope for their restoration, showing that God’s promises remain open to them.

Part 3 - God’s Mercy Is Just and Purposeful (Romans 9:14-18)

            Romans 9:14-18 - “What shall we say then? There is no injustice with God, is there? May it never be! For He says to Moses, “I will have mercy on whom I have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I have compassion.” So then it does not depend on the man who wills or the man who runs, but on God who has mercy. For the Scripture says to Pharaoh, “For this very purpose I raised you up, to demonstrate My power in you, and that My name might be proclaimed throughout the whole earth.” So then He has mercy on whom He desires, and He hardens whom He desires.”

Verse 14:

After showing that God’s promises haven’t failed because not all of ethnic Israel belongs to the true covenant family (9:6), Paul anticipates a strong objection: “What shall we say then? There is no injustice with God, is there?” (v. 14). This question would have echoed in the minds of many Jewish believers who were struggling with the reality that Gentiles were now being included in God’s covenant people through faith in Christ, while many Jews, who assumed they would inherit the promises through the law or their lineage, were being excluded due to unbelief (Acts 13:44-47, 22:21-22). To some, this shift may have seemed unfair or even unjust. But Paul answers emphatically: “May it never be!”

Verse 15:

Paul supports his point by quoting God’s words to Moses: “I will have mercy on whom I have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I have compassion” (Exodus 33:19). This statement comes from the aftermath of Israel’s rebellion with the golden calf, where God, despite their sin, chose to show mercy and continue with them. It was not because of anything they had done, but because of His covenant faithfulness.

This sets the stage for Paul’s argument. God’s mercy is never given on the basis of lineage, works, or entitlement. It is shown in line with His redemptive purpose. This has always been the pattern throughout Israel’s history and is also reflected earlier in Romans. By pointing to this moment in Exodus, Paul highlights that just as God was right to show mercy to undeserving Israel, He is also right to show mercy to believing Gentiles. God determines the terms by which He shows compassion. He does not act based on human merit but according to His gracious plan, which now includes both Jews and Gentiles who respond to His call through faith.

However, Paul does not introduce God’s mercy as a mysterious or undefined concept in Romans 9. Earlier in the letter, he repeatedly explains who receives mercy and how it is received:

• Romans 2:4 - God’s kindness is intended to lead people to repentance, showing that His mercy is aimed at transformation, not favoritism.
  
  
• Romans 3:22-24 - “The righteousness of God [comes] through faith in Jesus Christ for all those who believe… being justified as a gift by His grace through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus.” Mercy is extended to those who believe, without distinction.
  
  
• Romans 4:16 - “It is by faith, in order that it may be in accordance with grace.” God’s mercy is accessed by faith, not by works or heritage.
  
  
• Romans 5:6-8 - God’s love and mercy are demonstrated in that “while we were still sinners, Christ died for us.”
  
  
• Romans 6:23 - “The free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord.” Mercy is not earned—it is a gift.
  
  
• Romans 8:1 - “There is now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus.” God’s mercy results in full acceptance for those in Christ.

In each of these passages, Paul shows that God’s mercy is not unconditional in the sense of being randomly distributed, but it is graciously given to those who trust in Him, and He is just in doing so. The distinction Paul makes is not between those God chooses to save arbitrarily and those He rejects, but between those who seek righteousness through faith and those who try to earn it through works or assume it through heritage.

Verse 16:

Paul then draws this conclusion: “So then it does not depend on the one who wills or the one who runs, but on God who has mercy.” The Greek text does not include an explicit subject, the “it” is implied and must be supplied from the context. However, the “it” refers specifically to God’s act of showing mercy, as mentioned in verse 15. Paul is not arguing, as some interpret, that salvation is divorced from any human response, but that God’s initiative to show mercy is not something earned by effort, heritage, or zeal for the law. This directly challenges the mindset of those, especially unbelieving Jews in this context, who believed such things secured their place in God’s covenant (cf. Romans 10:2-3; Philippians 3:2-6).

This sets the stage for Paul’s larger argument: If God’s mercy toward rebellious Israel in the past wasn’t unjust, then neither is His mercy toward believing Gentiles in the present. While verse 16 highlights that God's initiative to show mercy is not based on human effort or privilege, Paul will go on to show that He consistently chooses to extend mercy to those who respond in faith. From beginning to end in Romans, God’s mercy is never portrayed as arbitrary, random, or disconnected from His revealed purposes. He has always had the sovereign right to define the terms by which He shows mercy, and He does so not without reason, but in accordance with His redemptive purpose and revealed will. As Paul will say in verse 18, “He has mercy on whom He desires,” but Scripture also tells us whom He desires to show mercy to: the humble, the repentant, and those who believe. As Paul made clear earlier, “The righteousness of God comes through faith in Jesus Christ for all those who believe” (Romans 3:22), and he will later affirm that salvation comes through confession and belief (Romans 10:9-10). It is by God’s gracious choice that He gives mercy to those who believe, Jew or Gentile. This consistent pattern is both just and gracious, and it reinforces the central message of Romans: righteousness and mercy come through faith in Christ, not through works of the law or ethnic privilege.

The Old Testament Consistency:

This understanding of God’s mercy aligns with the broader biblical witness:

• “The Lord is near to the brokenhearted and saves those who are crushed in spirit” (Psalm 34:18).
  
  
• “He saves the humble, but Your eyes are on the haughty to bring them low” (2 Samuel 22:28).
  
  
• “He mocks proud mockers but shows favor to the humble and oppressed” (Proverbs 3:34, LXX quoted in James 4:6 and 1 Peter 5:5).
  
  
• “This is the one I will look to: the one who is humble, contrite in spirit, and trembles at My word” (Isaiah 66:2).

That’s a central thread of Paul’s teaching in Romans 9: that God shows mercy not on the basis of lineage or effort, but to those who approach Him in humility and faith, and this aligns perfectly with the rest of Scripture. Pharaoh, however, as Paul will shortly reference, was not humble or responsive to God’s word, but stood in proud resistance. This highlights the contrast between those who are hardened in disobedience and those who receive mercy through humble faith.

Verses 17:

Paul continues to address the concern raised in verse 14, whether God is unjust in His dealings with ethnic unbelieving Israel, by appealing to the example of Pharaoh in verses 17-18. His Jewish audience, well-versed in the Exodus narrative, would have understood the broader context of Exodus 9:16: God raised Pharaoh up to demonstrate His power and proclaim His name throughout the earth. But Paul’s point is not that Pharaoh was created evil or had no choice. Rather, the biblical account shows that Pharaoh’s hardening was a progressive, judicial process, not an arbitrary decree.

Some readers may wonder: didn’t God already say He would harden Pharaoh’s heart before the plagues even began? Yes, in Exodus 4:21 and 7:3, God tells Moses, “I will harden his heart.” But these are predictive statements, not records of what God had already done. When we follow the actual chronology, it becomes clear that Pharaoh first hardened his own heart before any divine hardening is said to occur. These early verses anticipate what God would eventually do in response to Pharaoh’s continued rebellion, not something He forced on Pharaoh from the outset.

This distinction is important, because a heart cannot be hardened unless it was first capable of being pliable. In Pharaoh’s case, the text presents a pattern: after Pharaoh repeatedly rejects God’s command, God responds by strengthening him in the defiance he has already chosen. Early in the story, Pharaoh hardens his own heart (e.g., Exod. 8:15, 8:32), or the source of hardening is ambiguous (e.g., Exod. 7:13, 8:19). Only later does the text say, “the LORD hardened Pharaoh’s heart” (Exod. 9:12). This aligns with the biblical pattern of judicial hardening, as seen in Romans 1, where God “gives people over” to their desires after they suppress the truth.

A closer look at the Hebrew terminology used to describe Pharaoh’s heart provides further insight:

• Chazaq (חָזַק) - to strengthen, encourage, or support. God did not inject new rebellion but strengthened Pharaoh’s own resolve.

• Kaved (כָּבֵד) - to be heavy or weighty, or honored. God honored Pharaoh’s decision and gave him over to his defiance.

• Qashah (קָשָׁה) - to be stubborn or difficult. This term underscores Pharaoh’s entrenched resistance.

Paul uses Pharaoh to illustrate that God’s hardening is not arbitrary or unjust, it is a righteous response to human pride and unbelief. Just as Pharaoh resisted God’s word and was eventually hardened, so too has ethnic unbelieving Israel been hardened, not irreversibly, but purposefully. Paul will later explain in Romans 11:7-11 that this hardening serves a redemptive goal: it opens the door for the Gentiles to receive the gospel and ultimately provokes Israel to return in repentance. Both Pharaoh and Israel demonstrate how God can even use rebellion to accomplish His purposes, without compromising His justice.

Verse 18:

So when Paul concludes, “He has mercy on whom He desires, and He hardens whom He desires” (v. 18), he is not endorsing fatalism. Rather, he affirms God’s sovereign right to respond justly to human choices: showing mercy to the humble and believing, and allowing the rebellious to become firm in their resistance. The point is not that God’s mercy is inaccessible, but that it is never earned and never owed.

But God’s ultimate desire becomes unmistakable later in Romans 11:32:

            “For God has shut up all in disobedience so that He may show mercy to all.”

This shows that God’s mercy is offered to all, not limited to a pre-selected few. But while the offer is universal, the mercy is given to those who receive it through faith (Rom. 3:22; 5:1-2; 9:30-32; 10:12-13). This fits perfectly with Paul’s larger message throughout Romans: righteousness is not attained by lineage or effort, but through faith in Christ. God’s mercy is consistent, not random, freely offered to all, yet effectual for those who receive it by faith.

• Note: For a more in depth look at the account of Pharaoh, please check out my article “Pharaoh’s Hard Heart.”

Summary of Romans 9:14-18:

Paul addresses a natural objection to his earlier argument: If many Jews are being excluded from the covenant blessings while Gentiles are being included, is God unjust? His emphatic answer is “May it never be!” (v. 14). This seeming shift in covenant inclusion is not an act of divine injustice, but a reflection of God’s consistent pattern of showing mercy according to His redemptive purposes.

Quoting from Exodus 33:19, Paul reminds readers that God has always had the sovereign right to show mercy, not based on works, lineage, or human striving, but in line with His covenant faithfulness. This mercy, however, is not arbitrary or detached from human response. As Paul has already shown throughout Romans, God extends mercy to those who believe (Rom. 3:22–24; 4:16; 5:8; 6:23), and His desire is to lead people to repentance (Rom. 2:4).

In verse 16, Paul clarifies that God’s act of showing mercy does not depend on human will or effort, but on His gracious initiative. Yet, this does not mean that human response is irrelevant, only that mercy is never earned or owed. God sets the terms by which He gives mercy, and those terms are consistently tied to faith and humility, not heritage or works.

Paul then appeals to Pharaoh as an example of God’s just dealings with human rebellion. God raised Pharaoh up not to predetermine his damnation, but to display His power through Pharaoh’s persistent resistance. The biblical narrative shows a progressive hardening: Pharaoh first hardened his own heart before God judicially confirmed him in that defiance. Paul uses this to illustrate that God’s hardening is not arbitrary, but a righteous response to human pride and unbelief.

The implication is clear: just as God was right to harden Pharaoh after repeated defiance, so too He is just in hardening unbelieving Israel. They have, like Pharaoh, rejected God’s revealed word and resisted His purposes in Christ. Thus, when Paul concludes that God “has mercy on whom He desires and hardens whom He desires” (v. 18), he is affirming God’s sovereign freedom to act justly, not fatalistically. God’s mercy is consistently given to the humble and believing, and His hardening is a response to persistent rejection.

Far from teaching unconditional election and reprobation, this passage shows a consistent biblical theme: God’s mercy is freely offered to all, but effectual for those who receive it through faith.

Part 4 - The Potter and the Clay (Romans 9:19-24)

            Romans 9:19-24 - “You will say to me then, “Why does He still find fault? For who resists His will?” On the contrary, who are you, O man, who answers back to God? The thing molded will not say to the molder, “Why did you make me like this,” will it? Or does not the potter have a right over the clay, to make from the same lump one vessel for honorable use and another for common use? What if God, although willing to demonstrate His wrath and to make His power known, endured with much patience vessels of wrath prepared for destruction? And He did so to make known the riches of His glory upon vessels of mercy, which He prepared beforehand for glory, even us, whom He also called, not from among Jews only, but also from among Gentiles.”

Verse 19:

In light of the Pharaoh example and Paul’s previous point that God uses both vessels of mercy and vessels of dishonor for His purposes, the objection Paul appears to be anticipating is this: “If someone’s rebellion ends up serving God’s plan (like Pharaoh), why are they still held accountable?” Again, I would like to remind the reader that Paul is addressing this from the perspective of his primary audience, believing Jews who are grappling with why so many of their fellow Israelites have rejected the Messiah and whether that calls God’s faithfulness into question. At the heart of this anticipated objection is a refusal to accept God’s freedom to define His covenant people around faith in Christ rather than physical descent or Torah observance.

This echoes a similar protest Paul addressed earlier in Romans 3:5-8. There, the argument was, “If our unrighteousness highlights the righteousness of God, isn’t it unfair for God to judge us?” In both chapters, Paul exposes the faulty reasoning of those who think that God using disobedience for His broader plan excuses their sin. But Paul’s answer is the same: the fact that God can use rebellion to accomplish His purposes does not absolve anyone of responsibility for that rebellion.

Yet Paul never presents God’s sovereignty as meticulous determinism that overrides genuine human freedom. Scripture consistently affirms that people are capable of either responding to God’s mercy or resisting it. God is not manipulating people into rebellion in order to achieve His goals, He is working through their freely chosen actions. His mercy is offered to all, but it is only effectual for those who receive it by faith. Those who reject it are rightly held accountable, not because they were fated to do so, but because they could have done otherwise.

Paul is pointing out the fact that while God can bring good out of evil, this doesn’t mean the evil itself is justified. Those who harden themselves against God are still accountable, even if God uses their rebellion to display His power and advance His redemptive purposes.

Verses 20-21:

When Paul says, “Who are you, O man, who answers back to God?” and uses the image of the potter and the clay (Rom 9:20-21), he is not introducing a novel argument for individual predestination to salvation or damnation. Instead, he is drawing on a well-known Old Testament rebuke, particularly from Isaiah 29:16, to confront Israel’s arrogant attitude toward God’s unfolding redemptive plan. Paul’s Jewish audience would have been well acquainted with this potter-clay imagery from passages like Isaiah 29:16, 41:25, 64:8, and Jeremiah 18:4-6, where the relationship between God and His people is described in terms of a potter shaping clay.

Isaiah 29:16 states:

            “You turn things around! Shall the potter be considered as equal with the clay, that what is made would say to its maker, ‘He did not make me’; or what is formed say to him who formed it, ‘He has no understanding’?”

In context, this verse is part of God’s judgment against Jerusalem, whose leaders thought they could carry out secret plans without God seeing them (Isa 29:15). The accusation is not that they lacked knowledge, but that they inverted the proper relationship between Creator and creature. They thought they could hide from God and yet still presume upon His favor, claiming to be His people while rejecting His wisdom and correction. Their behavior was a moral and theological reversal, treating the Potter as if He were the clay. The point is not that the clay was created for destruction, but that it arrogantly challenged the wisdom of its Maker.

Paul applies this same rebuke to his fellow Israelites in Romans 9 who were objecting to how God was carrying out His promises, especially by including Gentiles and excluding many Jews. Like their forefathers in Isaiah’s day, they were acting as if they had the authority to critique God’s actions and question His justice. By invoking Isaiah 29:16, Paul is turning the mirror on them: “You’re doing the same thing your ancestors did, flipping the roles and assuming you have the right to call God’s plan into question.”

This reading is reinforced by Paul’s broader use of Old Testament imagery. The potter-clay theme also appears in Jeremiah 18:4-6, where God likens Israel to clay in a potter’s hand, but crucially, the clay’s outcome is not unconditionally predetermined by deterministic decree, but responsive to its condition. The Lord explicitly says He can change His plans toward a nation depending on whether they repent or rebel. This dynamic interaction reinforces Paul’s point that God remains righteous even when reshaping His redemptive purposes. And importantly, Paul states that both types of vessels come from “the same lump” (Rom 9:21), a phrase that echoes Romans 11:16, where the “lump” clearly represents Israel as a whole. This further confirms that Paul is speaking corporately about Israel's role in redemptive history.

Further, in 2 Timothy 2:20-21, Paul again uses the potter and vessel language, and affirms that vessels can change their use: “If anyone cleanses himself… he will be a vessel for honor.” This underscores that the distinction between vessels for honor or dishonor is not the result of a unilateral, immutable decree, but can shift depending on the person’s response to God.

So, in Romans 9:20-21, Paul is not teaching that God unconditionally created some people to be saved and others to be damned. Rather, he is challenging Israel’s presumption in thinking they could dictate how God should carry out His covenant purposes. Like their ancestors, they were attempting to override God’s wisdom with their expectations, and Paul rebukes this reversal by appealing to the familiar prophetic image: the clay doesn’t get to question the Potter, especially when it has misunderstood what the Potter is doing.

Verse 22-24:

Paul continues addressing the concern that God's promises to Israel seem to have failed. He has already shown that God's covenant purposes were never based on ethnic descent or works, but on faith and His right to define His covenant people. Here in verses 22-24, Paul invites his audience to consider God's actions in light of His justice, patience, and mercy, not as the outworking of a rigid decree, but as expressions of His redemptive purpose and covenantal faithfulness.

The question Paul raises, “What if God... endured with great patience objects of wrath prepared for destruction?” is rhetorical and meant to provoke reflection on God’s patience and redemptive plan. The passage emphasizes God's patient endurance toward those who persist in rebellion, such as unbelieving Israel who, like Pharaoh, harden themselves and are increasingly hardened as a just consequence. The phrase “prepared for destruction” is an aorist passive participle in Greek, which leaves open the possibility that these “vessels” have prepared themselves through persistent unbelief and rebellion. The text does not require us to read this as God unilaterally ordaining certain individuals to be destroyed from all eternity. This aligns with earlier parts of Romans, especially chapter 1, where Paul shows that those who reject God are “given over” to their own desires (Rom. 1:24, 26, 28). Paul also previously noted in Romans 2:5, people "store up wrath for [themselves]" through unrepentance. These are individuals who have persistently resisted God’s truth and thereby positioned themselves as vessels fitted for destruction.

Moreover, this condition is not necessarily final. As Paul later clarifies in Romans 11:23, “they also, if they do not continue in their unbelief, will be grafted in.” Likewise, 2 Timothy 2:20-21 indicates that even a vessel for dishonor can become a vessel of honor. God’s patience with the rebellious is not arbitrary, nor does it signal a permanent rejection. Rather, His endurance reflects His broader redemptive aim, giving space for repentance and return. This is consistent with His character throughout Scripture: slow to anger, abounding in mercy, and desiring all to come to repentance (cf. 2 Peter 3:9).

Indeed, if there were no opportunity for repentance, what would be the point of God's patience? Romans 2:4-5 makes clear that God's kindness and patience are intended to lead to repentance. Paul and Peter both emphasize this redemptive aim: Paul says in 1 Timothy 1:16 that he was shown mercy as an example of God’s perfect patience, and Peter writes in 2 Peter 3:9 that God delays judgment because He is “not willing for any to perish but for all to come to repentance.”

So when Paul says God “endured with much patience vessels of wrath,” this reveals a divine longing for their redemption, not a predetermined rejection. These vessels are not puppets fashioned for destruction, but people who resist God’s purposes and, by doing so, become suited for a different role in the story. And God, although willing to show wrath, holds back judgment to give time and opportunity to repent.

In contrast to those vessels who persist in resistance, Paul describes the “objects of mercy,” whom God has “prepared beforehand for glory.” This does not mean that God unconditionally predestined certain individuals to salvation apart from their faith or response. Rather, “prepared beforehand” refers to God’s intended purpose for all who believe. It reflects His eternal plan to glorify those who respond to His mercy through faith in Christ.

As noted earlier in Romans 8:29, “For those whom He foreknew, He also predestined to become conformed to the image of His Son…” Those whom God foreknew are the people with whom He had a covenant relationship, the faithful remnant, preserved by grace. This remnant now includes all who are in Christ by faith. What God predestined was not who would be in this group, but what He would do for those who are: to conform them to the image of His Son and raise them in glory. The focus is on the outcome for the covenant community, not an unconditional selection of individuals apart from faith.

 

There is also an important contrast in the language: the “vessels of wrath” are passively “prepared” for destruction, suggesting that their condition arises from their own rebellion, while the “vessels of mercy” are actively “prepared beforehand” by God. This indicates that God is intentionally working in the lives of believers to prepare them for glory through sanctification, the indwelling of the Spirit, and transformation into Christlikeness. It is not about God unilaterally choosing who will believe, but about His gracious work in those who are in Christ.

This idea aligns with Ephesians 2:10: “For we are His workmanship, created in Christ Jesus for good works, which God prepared beforehand so that we would walk in them.” The preparation is not about predetermining who will be saved, but about what God has made ready for those who belong to Christ, a path of transformation, obedience, and ultimate glorification.

As Paul makes clear in Romans 9:24, this group includes “not from among Jews only, but also from among Gentiles.” God’s mercy is extended broadly, and He has the sovereign right to include believing Gentiles within His covenant family, not through ancestry or works, but through faith. Paul answers the charge of injustice by reminding them that God's plan always included the Gentiles, as seen in the following quotations from Hosea and Isaiah (vv. 25-29).

The inclusion of Gentiles as vessels of mercy also fits within a broader redemptive design explained in chapter 11. Paul writes that salvation has come to the Gentiles “to make [Israel] jealous” (Romans 11:11), so that some of his fellow Jews might be stirred to return and receive that same mercy (v. 14). Thus, the “riches of His glory” poured out on the vessels of mercy serve a wider purpose: not only the transformation of believers, but also the invitation to unbelieving Israel, and others, to seek that same grace. This aligns with the culminating truth Paul proclaims in Romans 11:32: “For God has shut up all in disobedience, so that He may show mercy to all.” The vessels of mercy are not an exclusive few, but part of a larger plan in which God’s mercy is made known and available to all who respond in faith.

Thus, Paul’s point is not about God unilaterally choosing who will believe or disbelieve, but about God's right to show mercy to all who believe (Jew or Gentile) and to use even hardened vessels (like Pharaoh or unbelieving Israel) to accomplish His redemptive purposes, without compromising human responsibility or God's justice.

In fact, Scripture supports the idea that no one was ever intended to be a vessel of wrath. Ephesians 2:3-5 states that “we were by nature children of wrath… but God, being rich in mercy… made us alive together with Christ.” We were vessels of wrath, but became vessels of mercy. The transformation is possible and real, and God desires it: “Behold, I am fashioning calamity against you… Oh turn back, each of you from his evil way” (Jer. 18:11).

To read Romans 9:22-24 as if God created some people with the sole purpose of condemning them is to miss the consistent testimony of Scripture regarding God's character, patience, and desire for all to come to repentance. Paul’s point is not abstract philosophy, but a pastoral and prophetic defense of God’s freedom to fulfill His redemptive plan, welcoming Gentiles, preserving a faithful remnant of Israel, and extending mercy to all who believe.

Summary of Romans 9:19-24:

Romans 9:19-24 does not teach a rigid determinism where God arbitrarily creates some for salvation and others for damnation. Rather, Paul defends God's sovereign freedom to reshape His covenant people, not around ethnicity or Torah, but around faith in Christ. The potter analogy emphasizes God’s right to rework the clay, but also assumes that the clay (as in Jeremiah 18 and 2 Timothy 2:20-21) is responsive.

The “vessels of wrath” are not doomed from birth; they are those who, like Pharaoh and unbelieving Israel, resist God's purposes and are hardened in their rebellion. Yet God endures them with patience, offering the opportunity for repentance (Rom. 11:23). The “vessels of mercy,” meanwhile, are those who respond in faith, foreknown, predestined for glory (Rom. 8:29-30), and now called from both Jews and Gentiles into God’s redefined people.

Part 4 - The Remnant and Nations Foretold (Romans 9:25-29)

            Romans 9:25-29 - “As He says also in Hosea, “I will call those who were not My people, ‘My people,’ And her who was not beloved, ‘beloved.’ ” “And it shall be that in the place where it was said to them, ‘you are not My people,’ There they shall be called sons of the living God.” Isaiah cries out concerning Israel, “Though the number of the sons of Israel be like the sand of the sea, it is the remnant that will be saved; for the Lord will execute His word on the earth, thoroughly and quickly.” And just as Isaiah foretold, “Unless the Lord of Sabaoth had left to us a posterity, We would have become like Sodom, and would have resembled Gomorrah.””

Paul continues his argument by grounding it in the Old Testament, showing that the inclusion of Gentiles and the narrowing of Israel to a faithful remnant are not new developments, but consistent with God’s revealed plan from the beginning. This reinforces the main point of Romans 9:6, that God’s word has not failed, because God's promises were never rooted in ethnicity alone, but in His mercy and the response of faith.

Verses 25-26:

Paul quotes Hosea 2:23 and 1:10, verses originally addressed to the northern kingdom of Israel, who through unfaithfulness had become “not My people.” God had promised to restore them, once again calling them “My people” and “beloved.” Paul now applies this language to the inclusion of both believing Gentiles and the faithful remnant of Israel in Christ (cf. 1 Peter 2:9-10).

This is not a forced reinterpretation, but a fulfillment, a typological extension of God’s redemptive pattern. Just as God once showed mercy to the disobedient in Israel, He is now showing mercy to those who were previously outside of the covenant, including Gentiles. Importantly, Gentiles were never categorically excluded from God's covenant; the Old Testament gives examples of Gentiles (like Ruth and Rahab) being welcomed into God's people when they aligned themselves with Israel's God. However, Paul emphasizes that in a broad national sense, Gentiles were not historically regarded as God’s people—but now, in Christ, they are being grafted into that identity (cf. Romans 11:17).

Thus, Hosea’s language finds fulfillment in the formation of the true people of God, composed of believing Jews and Gentiles. This ties in with Paul’s olive tree imagery in Romans 11; there is one covenant people, and those who believe are grafted in and called “sons of the living God.”

Verses 27-28:

Paul quotes Isaiah 10:22-23 to affirm that even though Israel was numerous, “like the sand of the sea”, only a remnant would be saved. This wasn’t because God withheld salvation from the rest, but because many had turned away from Him and pursued righteousness through the law rather than by faith (cf. Romans 9:31-32).

By citing Isaiah, Paul shows that God’s promises were never directed to the nation in a blanket, ethnic sense, but always centered on those who were faithful. This supports Paul's point that God’s promises have not failed just because many Jews have rejected Christ, Isaiah foresaw that only a portion of Israel would be part of God’s redemptive plan.

God’s “word” in verse 28 refers to His decisive and just fulfillment of that plan. The remnant consists of those who respond to God's mercy by faith, not those who presume inclusion based on ethnicity or the law.

Verse 29:

Paul concludes this section by citing Isaiah 1:9, emphasizing that if it were not for God's mercy, Israel would have been entirely wiped out, like Sodom and Gomorrah. The fact that any Israelites remain is due to the Lord's gracious preservation, not human merit, not national status, and not covenantal entitlement.

This rebukes any pride among Paul's Jewish contemporaries who presumed upon their ethnic heritage. It is God’s mercy, not their lineage, that explains why a remnant survives. This also sets the tone for Romans 10, where Paul will show that Israel’s rejection was due to their unbelief and their pursuit of righteousness through works rather than faith (Romans 10:3-4).

Summary of Romans 9:25-29:

Romans 9:25–29 reveals that God’s redemptive plan, now fulfilled in Christ, has always included both the faithful among Israel and believing Gentiles. Hosea’s prophecy finds its fulfillment in this new covenant community, and Isaiah’s warnings explain why only a remnant of Israel is included. God’s people are not defined by ethnicity but by faith. The olive tree of God’s people continues, not through national privilege, but through mercy and faith in Christ.

Part 5 - Righteousness Attained by Faith Not Works (Romans 9:30-33)

            Romans 9:30-33 - “What shall we say then? That Gentiles, who did not pursue righteousness, attained righteousness, even the righteousness which is by faith; but Israel, pursuing a law of righteousness, did not arrive at that law. Why? Because they did not pursue it by faith, but as though it were by works. They stumbled over the stumbling stone, just as it is written, “Behold, I lay in Zion a stone of stumbling and a rock of offense, And he who believes in Him will not be disappointed.””

Paul now shifts from theological exposition to direct application. Having shown through the Old Testament that God's mercy extends beyond ethnic Israel and that a remnant remains, he now explains why Gentiles are being included and many Jews are not. The answer is not found in an unconditional decree, but in how each group responded to God’s offer of righteousness.

Verses 30–31:

Paul begins with a contrast: “Gentiles, who did not pursue righteousness, attained righteousness... but Israel, pursuing a law of righteousness, did not arrive at that law.” The Gentiles, who had no history of pursuing the Mosaic Law or striving for covenant faithfulness under the Torah, are now being declared righteous, not by works, but by faith. In contrast, Israel, though diligently seeking righteousness through the law, has failed to attain it.

This makes Paul’s point explicit: the reason for the current state of affairs is not because God withheld saving grace from Israel, but because Israel pursued righteousness the wrong way. The Gentiles are not being saved because they were predestined in some secret eternal decree, nor are the Jews being lost because they were excluded from grace. Rather, God has graciously chosen to save those who put their faith in Him. The difference, then, lies in how each group responded, either by trusting in God’s provision or by attempting to establish their own righteousness through works.

This ties directly into what Paul writes in Ephesians 2:11–22, where Gentiles, once “excluded from the commonwealth of Israel” and “strangers to the covenants of promise”, are now brought near through Christ and included in God’s household. Through faith, they become “fellow citizens with the saints” and are built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, with Christ Jesus Himself as the cornerstone.

Verse 32:

Paul answers the implied question: Why didn’t Israel succeed? His answer is clear, “Because they did not pursue it by faith, but as though it were by works.” This single verse dismantles any deterministic reading of chapter 9. Israel’s failure is not due to a lack of being elect or a sovereign decision by God to withhold faith from them. Rather, it was their own decision to pursue righteousness through self-effort instead of trust in God.

Paul then reinforces this by referencing Isaiah again: “They stumbled over the stumbling stone.” This stone is Christ, the same cornerstone referenced in Ephesians 2:20, in whom righteousness is found. Israel's rejection of Him was not the result of an unchangeable decree but a willful rejection based on their expectations of righteousness through law-keeping. They refused to believe in the One sent by God because they were seeking righteousness on their own terms.

Verse 33:

Paul concludes by quoting Isaiah 28:16, declaring that “the one who believes in Him will not be put to shame.” This quotation again highlights the centrality of faith. God’s saving promise is open to anyone who believes, not limited to a predetermined group.

Paul is preparing to say plainly in chapter 10 what he has been arguing all along: “Everyone who believes in Him will not be disappointed” (10:11), and “Whoever will call on the name of the Lord will be saved” (10:13). The tragedy is that many in Israel stumbled, not because they couldn’t believe, but because they wouldn’t.

Summary of Romans 9:30-33:

Romans 9:30-33 brings clarity to Paul’s argument. The reason many Gentiles are now included and many Jews are not has nothing to do with a secret decree of election or reprobation. It is because the Gentiles responded to the gospel in faith, while many in Israel sought righteousness by works and stumbled over the very One who fulfilled the law and the promises. God has remained faithful to His word, and His mercy is extended to all who believe.

Part 6 - Summary of Romans 9

Romans 9 addresses a central concern in Paul’s day: If Israel was God’s chosen people, why have so many of them rejected the Messiah? And if that’s the case, has God’s word failed? Paul’s answer is a clear and consistent no. God’s promises are still being fulfilled, but not in the way many had assumed. Paul answers these concerns by pointing to God’s freedom to define His covenant people, not by physical descent or works, but by faith.

He begins in verses 1-5 with heartfelt grief over his fellow Israelites, who, despite their many covenant blessings, remain separated from Christ. This sets the stage for the larger question he addresses throughout the chapter.

In verses 6-13, Paul clarifies that God’s promises have not failed, because not all who are descended from Israel are truly Israel. Paul then appeals to Israel’s own history to show that God’s redemptive purposes have never rested on physical descent or human effort. From Isaac over Ishmael, to Jacob over Esau, God's plan has always advanced through promise, not privilege. These examples don’t teach unconditional election to salvation but demonstrate God’s freedom to carry out His plan through whomever He chooses, ultimately fulfilled in Christ and extended to all who believe.

In verses 14–18, Paul anticipates objections about God’s justice. Is it unfair for God to show mercy on His own terms? Not at all. God has always been just in showing mercy to the undeserving, whether to Israel after the golden calf or now to Gentiles receiving the gospel. Mercy has never been based on effort or lineage, but on God’s gracious purpose to save those who believe. Paul also appeals to the example of Pharaoh, whose repeated rejection of God led to his hardening. This wasn’t arbitrary but was a judicial response to his stubbornness. In the same way, many among Israel who have rejected the Messiah are being hardened, yet God remains patient, using even their unbelief to further His redemptive plan.

Verses 19–24 continue the conversation by addressing another objection: If God uses even human rebellion to fulfill His purposes, how can He still hold people accountable? Paul answers this by invoking the imagery of the potter and the clay, not to teach fatalistic determinism, but to confront the arrogance of those who resist God's right to redefine His people around faith in Christ. God endures with patience those who reject Him and prepares for glory those who respond to His call in faith.

Verses 25–29 show that the inclusion of Gentiles and the narrowing of Israel to a remnant were foretold in the prophets. God’s plan hasn’t changed, it’s being fulfilled. Those who are now called “My people” are those who respond to Him in faith, whether Jew or Gentile. And the remnant within Israel, preserved by grace, shows that God’s promises are still being kept.

Finally, in verses 30–33, Paul explains why Gentiles are receiving righteousness while many Jews are not. The difference isn’t about who was chosen in some secret decree, but about how each group responded to God’s offer of righteousness. Gentiles received it by faith. Israel, pursuing it by works, stumbled over Christ. The tragedy is not that they couldn’t believe, but that they wouldn’t.

Taken together, Romans 9 is not a discourse on individual predestination to salvation or condemnation, but a defense of God’s covenant faithfulness. God’s word has not failed. His promises are being fulfilled through Christ, and His people are now defined not by lineage, law, or effort, but by faith in Him, whether Jew or Gentile.